Mental Health Study Guide 1 Essay Example for Free

Mental Health Study Guide 1 Essay Define and describe psychiatric and mental health nursing: Psychiatric nursing focuses on care and rehab of people with identifiable mental illness or disorder Mental Health nursing focuses on well and at risk population to prevent mental illness or provide immediate treatment for those with early signs of a disorder. Psychiatric mental health nursing is described by Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing: Scope and Standard of Practice as committed to promoting mental health through the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of human responses to mental health problems and psychiatric disorders. Psychiatric mental health nursing uses the study of human behavior as its science and purposeful use of self as its art. It views people holistically, considering their strength, needs, and problems. It is based on physical and social science, designed to meet needs of people with health problems, provided by caring and knowledgeable professionals, relies on problem solving approach to plan, deliver, and evaluate care. 2. Trace the history of psychiatric mental health nursing in the US as it applies to patient centered care: 3. Identify significant trends in healthcare and their effects on psychiatric nursing 4. Describe the difference between various theories Psychodynamic- psychoanalytic theory derives from Sigmund Freud. Central to analytic theory is the idea of unconscious which contains repressed memories. Although a person is unaware of unconscious material, repressed thoughts seek expression thorugh dreams, fantasies or may lead to irrational or maladaptive behavior. A goal of psychodynamic counseling is to expand awareness on unconscious functioning and its relation to daily living. To Freud, personality is composed of three subsystem: id, ego , superego. Cognitive- Guides two major schools of thoughts: Albert Ellis’s rational emotive theory and Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory. Both emphasize the role of cognition (thoughts) in how people feel and act Rational emotive therapy (Ellis theory) event do not cause emotional or behavioral consequences directly. Rather, beliefs about these activating events are the most direct and important causes of how people feel and act. Rational emotive therapy (RET) emphasizes the disputation of irrational beliefs. Cognitive Theory (Becks)- holds that conditions such as depression result primarily from pervasive, negative misinterpretation . Behavioral- States that all behavior are learned, focuses on how environmental conditions result in acquisition, modification, maintenance, and elimination of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. To a behaviorist, subjective experience did not provide acceptable scientific data, only study of directly observable behavior and the stimuli reinforcing conditions that control it could serve as a basis for formulating scientific principles. Concepts of behavioral theory are: conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, generalization and discrimination, modeling, shaping. Cognitive behavioral- Learning theorists, such as Donald Meichenbaum enhanced behavior therapy by introducing role of cognitions or mediating processes between a stimulus and response, which led to cognitive behavioral theory or cognitive behavioral management. This type of therapy is active, directive, highly structured, and time limited. Therapists are seen as teachers or coaches and expect clients to be engaged actively in their treatment, practicing new thoughts and behaviors through homework exercises developed by the therapist. Some cognitive behavioral techniques: Cognitive labeling, systematic rational restructuring, rational problem solving Humanistic- Recognizes the importance of learning and other psychological processes that traditionally have been the focus of research. Such processes include creativity, hope, love, self fulfillment, personal growth, values, and meaning. Humanists are concerned with the personal growth and potentialities of people. With their positive view of human nature, humanists believe that psychopathology results from the blocking or distortion of personal growth, excessive stress, and unfavorable social conditions. Sociocultural-focuses on role of social and cultural influences on the person. Culture can be thought of as the â€Å"glue† that holds certain groups together. It consists of socially acquired and transmitted symbols, beliefs, techniques, institutions, customs, and norms. Culture has been found to exert a great influence on the birth, development, and death of humans. Biophysical- referred to as medical model. Proposes that psychopathology results from physiologic condition, primary a deviation within the central nervous system. The reasons for these deviations are multifaceted, involving a complex interplay of genetics, temperament, development, brain circuitry, molecular biology, and environment. Interpersonal models- Emphasize the socialization of humans throughout their developmental stages. Failure to proceed through these stages satisfactorily lays the foundation for later maladaptive behavior. Emphasizes the role of early childhood in shaping self concept. Distorted self concepts can be traced to the person’s family. Two results of distorted self concepts are poor interpersonal functioning and self defeating games people learn to play. Interpersonal therapy is concerned with alleviating anxiety and pathogenic or problem causing relationships. 5. Discuss the rights of mental health clients and identify how these rights apply in practice: The basic rights of clients receiving psychiatric nursing care include: right to appropriate treatment, right to an individualized, written, treatment or service plan, right to ongoing participation in a manner appropriate to person’s capabilities, the right to be provided reasonable explanation in terms or language that client can understand, right not to receive a mode or course of treatment in the absence of informed, voluntary, written consent to treatment except during emergency, right not to participate in experimentation in the absence of informed, voluntary, written consent, right to freedom from restraint or seclusion, other than as a mode or course of treatment or restraint or seclusion during emergency, right to humane treatment environment that affords reasonable protection from harm and appropriate privacy with regard to personal needs, right to access on request, personâ €™s mental health record, right ( in the case of a person admitted on a residential or inpatient care basis, to converse with others privately, to have convenient and reasonable access to telephone and mails, see visitors, right to be informed promptly and in writing at time of admission of these rights, right to exercise rights without reprisal, right of referral to other providers upon discharge. 6. Identify situations in which the duty to warn should be invoked- The duty to warn should e invoked when there is possibility of harm. As a result of the Tarasoff decision, it is mandatory in most states for healthcare personnel to report any clear threat from clients about intent to harm specific people. Psychiatrists, psychotherapists, and other mental healthcare providers must warn authorities (if specified by law) and potential victims of possible dangerous actions of their clients, even if clients protest.

Howard Becker Studies in the Sociology of Deviance

Howard Becker Studies in the Sociology of Deviance Although there had been prior research into deviant labels, Howard Becker is hailed as the found of the modern labelling theory. Founded in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, it is this labelling theory that is perhaps his most important influential contribution to sociological and criminological knowledge. Beckers influences came from Cooleys looking-glass self  [ii]  , Meads theories on the internalisation of the self  [iii]  , and Lemerts social constructionism  [iv]  . Becker suggests that deviance is based on reactions and responses of others labelling an individual as such. He states that no particular act is inherently deviant unless until a group with socially powerful statuses or positions label it as such.  [v]   This approach to labelling deviance has become manifest in criminological and sociological research, and the development of the labelling theory. Becker opens Outsiders writing: social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction creates deviance, and by applying those roles to particular people and labelling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is  not  a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label  [vi]  . Just as society uses the stigma of the deviant label to justify its disapproval, the individual labelled uses it to justify their actions. Becker attempts to put a complex argument in a few words: instead of the deviant motives leading to the deviant behaviour, it is the other way around, the deviant behaviour in time produces the deviant motivation.  [vii]   In Outsiders, Becker views deviance as the creation of social groups by persons in positions of power rather than the quality of some act or behaviour. Becker disagrees with other theories of deviance, which accept the existence of deviance, and by doing so, simply accept the values and of the majority within a particular social group. According to Becker, studying the act of the individual is unimportant as it is merely breaking the rules made by those in power the rule breaking behaviour is constant and it is the labelling of such behaviour that changes. He describes rules as the reflection of certain social norms held by the majority of a society, whether formal or informal  [viii]  . Clearly, in a society where criminal activity is the norm, the one who chooses not to conform, should not be labelled as deviant for not committing crimes. Nevertheless, it could be said that they are deviant as they are not acting as expected and are deviating from the norm. Beckers approach, however, focuses on enforced rules. He views those who are likely to engage in rule-breaking behaviour as essentially different from those of the rule-making or rule-abiding society. He believes that those persons who are prone to rule-breaking behaviour see themselves morally at odds with those members of the rule-abiding society  [ix]  . Becker uses the term outsider to describe a rule-breaker who accepts the label of deviant and therefore view themselves as outside mainstream society. Becker also focuses on those in positions of power that have the authority to deem what rules society should abide by and who enforce those rules. According to Becker, the creation and enforcement of these rules is an enterprising act  [x]  . He hints at disagreeing with the morals and reasoning behind those who make and enforce these rules, realising that while some may have a moral crusade to prevent crime, most engage in the process strictly because it is a requirement of their vocation. Becker wrote Rule enforcers use the process of formal enforcement to satisfy two major interests, the justification of their occupation and the winning of respect from the people he/she patrols  [xi]  . He recognises that individuals who would not normally be prone to rule-breaking may become so by the misuse of labelling powers as a result of the enforcer abusing the great deal of discretion they are armed with. Becker concludes Outsiders by calling for empirical research of his approach to the labelling theory. As a result, there has been a vast amount of response from social scientists. Some research has directly reflected Beckers approach, whilst others have used his labelling theory as a foundation on which they furthered the theory. Gideon Fishman, for example, tested his theory by studying a sample of juvenile delinquents in mid-western America. Fishmans study  [xii]  looked at negative self-perception and whether this self-perception affects future misbehaviour. His results indicated that, although some accept the label of deviance and further entrench themselves in deviant behaviour, it is by no means universal; individuals react to the label in different ways. A popular application of Beckers labelling theory is in the research into mental health. Thomas Scheff adopts Beckers views on labelling theory and explains how people are labelled mentally ill in order to explain certain rule-breaking behaviour that society cant categorise  [xiii]  . Wright  [xiv]  and Pfohl  [xv]  recognise that Scheff is not concerned with occasional acts of deviance, but the lasting and sporadic deviance that is often considered under mental illness. People who are subsequently labelled as mentally ill often adopt the behaviour they would personally expect of a stereotypical mental health patient as portrayed through the media. Scheff identifies that we will all display symptoms of mental illness at some point in our lives, and labels are attached to those without power  [xvi]  . Scheff argues individuals who become stereotypically mentally ill, or at least behave as such, are rewarded by enterprising psychology professionals  [xvii]  . Empiri cal evidence of this can be found in several studies by Scheff into the process of mental hospital commitment. In carrying out his own research into the labelling theory, Edwin Schur modifies Beckers approach in Labelling Deviant Behaviour  [xviii]  , by shifting some of the focus to the deviant individual. He claims that, if people who are labelled deviant can organize and gain power within the society, they will be able to change societal views on what is or what is not considered deviant  [xix]  .  Ã‚  Schur says that this change in power may come in the form of uprisings, social movements, and even civil strife, which could ultimately result in the formation of a strong political group.  [xx]   Howard Becker has been criticised on much of his work on many levels, and these criticisms must be explored before any evaluation of his contribution to criminological knowledge can be made. Becker himself examines some of the criticisms made of the theory in his book Labelling Theory Reconsidered  [xxi]  . Firstly, he addresses those who have said it is not a true theory. He points out that rather than being an all-encompassing theory of deviance, labelling theory was established as a way of looking at a general area of human activity  [xxii]  , and not, he claims, a theory, with all the achievements and obligations that go with the title, nor focused so exclusively on the act of labelling as some have thought  [xxiii]  . He points out that the concept of morality can be problematic in its research and interpretation. He contemplates on where the researchers sympathies should lie and considers whether one should side with the outsider or simply ascertain criminal activity as intrinsically wrong? He stresses the difficulties of the sociologist of this decision, recognising that the researcher, whether taking either side, will be accused of taking a one-sided and distorted view. So we then ask how is it possible to see the situation from both sides simultaneously  [xxiv]  ? I agree that Becker is right in raising this criticism, as it is somewhat impossible to be completely un-bias on the basis that no researcher is capable of not carrying any sort of pre-conformed opinion or view on society and will, without doubt, have moral values, right or wrongly. In Whose Side Are We On  [xxv]  , Becker goes as far as to say that the labelling theorist must side with the deviator, as it is up to the sociol ogists to remedy unfair situations  [xxvi]  . Becker also points out there is problems with secrecy. The deviant individual, in many cases, will commit deviant acts in secrecy and will not what their actions to become universally known, especially when those acts are criminal. This poses difficulty in gaining a true insight into the world of the deviant individual and therefore jeopardises the validity of the labelling theory. Beckers claim was found to be correct by Humphrey in his study Tearoom Trade  [xxvii]  . In many cases, the individuals participating in homosexual behaviour in the tearooms were married with children, and consequently, when later asked in a questionnaire about their views on homosexuality, very few admitted their own visits to the tearooms. This notion of secrecy among deviants will undoubtedly cause problems for researchers and their research. It is also very difficult for researchers to observe the day-to-day lives of deviant individuals, in what are perhaps highly dangerous places, as there are problems of infiltration and gaining the trust of what may be violent and dangerous people. If the researcher is able to gain such access, they then face the tasks of remaining impartial in their observations, to continue to observe without becoming involved in criminal activity themselves, and even trying to prevent crimes being committed. This can be seen in Parkers View from the Boys  [xxviii]  , where he studied boys in an area of Liverpool. Parker was only able to gain insight as he had previously met the boys he was studying at a centre for Liverpools deprived children. He says, however, If I had not been young, hairy, boozy, willing to keep long hours, accept permissive standards, the liaison would never have worked  [xxix]  . He also admits that his presence affected the behaviour and actions of the boys. On occasi ons he prevented them from committing crimes and even went as far as to help them if they were caught. In his research and development of the labelling theory, Becker doesnt address how factors such as biology, genetic effects and personal responsibility can influence, if at all, deviant individuals behaviour. After this met a barrage of criticism, he answered his critics in his 1973 edition of his work. He wrote that while sociological researchers are dedicated to finding an understanding about society, they are often too careful to look too closely. Becker noted I prefer to think of what we study as  collective action.  People act, as Mead and Blumer have made clearest,  together. They do what they do with an eye on what others have done, are doing now, and may do in the future. One tries to fit his own line of action into the actions of others, just as each of them likewise adjusts his own developing actions to what he sees and expects others to do  [xxx]  . Francis Cullen believed Becker was overly generous with his critics. He recognised that after 20 years, far from be ing supplanted, have been corrected and absorbed into an expanded structuring perspective  [xxxi]  . Beckers suggesting that rather than simply criticise him for not including these factors in his research, these sociologists should use those factors to help develop the labelling theory themselves. What I believe to be the greatest flaw in the labelling theory is the notion that no acts are inherently criminal  [xxxii]  , they only become criminal when society has deemed them as such. This seems to be suggesting that without the persons in power trying to satisfy two major interests: the justification of their occupation and the winning of respect from the people  [xxxiii]  by implementing laws, there would be no deviant. So does this mean that simply because it couldnt be labelled as such, it wouldnt exist? Just because something cant be specifically labelled as such does not mean that it ceases to occur. I agree with Beckers argument that people become deviant if they are expected to become so by society, but I fail be of the same mind that this is the reason behind the majority of deviant behaviour. In my opinion, the labelling of deviance comes after the deviant act occurs. The theory also claims that for a criminal to be successfully labelled, an audience must be present to provide a reaction to the crimes committed. So does this mean that if a murder is committed and the killer avoids suspicion or being caught, they are not a criminal and will not think of themselves in such a way? It is probable that the killer will have some idea of morals and what is conceived to be inherently right and wrong as a result of their own socialisation, and so could initialise self-labelling, but the theory clearly states the labelling must come from a third party. In attempting to evaluate the contribution of Becker to the study of criminology and more specifically the sociology of deviance, it is important to note that it depends on how the theory is viewed. If the theory is considered as a theory, with all the achievement and obligations that go with the title  [xxxiv]  then its flaws are many. Yet, if we consider the theory, as Becker suggests we do, as a mere way of looking at deviance, then the contribution could be said to be significant. Becker, unlike previous theorists, did not only look at the after-effects of a deviant act but considered the way one begins to fall deviant. In his study of marijuana users, for example, he considers how one begins to smoke. Whether one agrees or disagrees with Beckers approach to the labelling theory, the majority, if not all, will use that opinion to then form their own ideas and approaches to the study of deviance, as is evident from the amount of critique Becker has obtained. As a result, one c an conclude that Beckers approach to the labelling theory continues in its usefulness, and will remain to do so as long as deviant behaviour continues to exist.

Binding of QNB and Atropine to Muscarinic Acetylcholine

Binding of QNB and Atropine to Muscarinic Acetylcholine Cholinergic relates to the responses in various systems to the neuro-transmitter molecule Acetycholine (ACh). They are the protein that are permanently attached to the biological membrane or the integral membrane protein (IMP). If the set of response is seen where Ach is a normal transmitter it is seen that they are grouped based on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) that respond to nicotine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) that bind muscarine. These Nicotine and muscarine are extrinsic molecules that get the same response but with different sensitivity. Drugs that bind to muscarinic receptors are classified based on Agonists (which activate the neuronal receptor and produce a response) Antagonists (which do not activate the receptor and block the agonist binding site) Antagonists are now used to study the drug-receptor binding as they bind with a higher affinity (i.e lower dissociation constant kd) when compared with agonists Pharmacology studies have shown that antagonists have higher affinity but no efficacy to their cognate receptors. They intervene their effect by going and binding to the active site or to allosteric sites on the receptor. They can also go and bind to unique binding sites that do not participate in biological regulation of any receptor activity. The activity that antagonist causes may be reversible or irreversible, depending on the long life of the antagonist-receptor complex. Studies have shown that 3-Quinuclinidyl benzilate (QNB) is a potent muscarinic antagonist in CNS (central nervous system) and peripheral tissues. QNB shows specific binding to the receptor of interest it binds. It can also bind to other sites of the membrane and these can cause changes. We can measure specific binding by filtering radioactive 3H-QNB and then measuring the amount of QNB. To measure non-specific binding, Atropine is used to displace QNB from the specific sites, while the non-specifically bound QNB remains and can be quantified by measuring radioactivity. (Source: Yamamura et al. May 1974) Overview of the experiment QNB is carried out in a radioactive binding assay where the concentration of QNB that is specific bound without atropine and QNB that is non-specifically bound with atropine is measured over successive interval of time. It is allowed to incubate so as for binding site to reach saturation is allowed where the equilibrium is reached. After this any further increase incubation time does not cause the amount of QNB bound to change. This QNB bound to the membrane is measured. By calculating the incubation time, IC50 of atropine is measured by measuring the atropine at which 50% of bound QNB is displaced. Amount of free QNB when 50% of bound QNB is displaced is used to measure the dissociation constant (Kd). Materials and Methods Determination of QNB specific and non-specific binding Two bulk assays was carried out To measure QNB binding (in the presence of water) To measure non specific binding (with the presence of atropine) There were two conical flask taken A and B. Tube A was added with 30 ml of 1.3 nM 3H-QNB and 6ml water. And to the flask B flask B, 30 ml 3H-QNB and 6ml atropine was added. S filter tower is then set with 6 GF/C filters and 4.0 ml of rat membrane was added to each flask and the flask were swirled to mix well. 2ml aliquots from A flask (A1, A2, A3) and (B1, B2, B3) from the B flask were produced and were run through fresh GF/C filters. Each of the filters was then washed to remove mini-vials, and then 5 ml scintillant was added and was left for at least an hour. After a hour the radioactivity was counted in the scintilliant counter. This protocol was repeated for a couple of more time to produce triplicates at the time interval of 10, 20, 30, 45 and 60 min. Determination of IC50 for atropine Five glass test tubes having 1200 ÃŽÂ ¼l of distilled water in each was taken. To the test tube 1, 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l of 10 10 ÃŽÂ ¼M atropine was added and was mixed well. 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l of the solution was added to tube 2 and mixed well. The same method is carried out for a series of dilutions to be done in tube 3 to 5. Atropine concentration in each tube is calculated. Seven triplicate tubes (A1, A2, A3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦G1, G2, G3) are made each containing 1500 ÃŽÂ ¼l of 1.3nM QNB assay and the tubes are mixed well. 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l of 10 ÃŽÂ ¼M atropine was added to the three tubes of A and three B tubes were added with 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l of solution from tube 1. The dilution process was carried out for tubes C, D, E, F from tube 2, tube 3, tube 4 and tube 5 respectively. To tubes G, 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l of distilled water was added instead. 200 ÃŽÂ ¼l membrane was then added quickly to all the tubes. The 21 tubes were then left for incubation for 45 min and the radioactivity was then measured. Determination of concentration of protein using Lowry Assay Test tubes were prepared that contained 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 ÃŽÂ ¼g BSA (Bovine serum albumin) made up to 1 ml with water. A 6th tube was taken that had 50 ÃŽÂ ¼l of membrane that was made up to 1ml with water. 1.5ml of reagent 1 that contains 0.5 ml copper tartrate + 50ml alkaline carbonate was added and mixed well and let to stand for 10 min at room temperature. Then 0.3 ml of reagent 2 that contains Commercial Folin-Ciocalteau reagent was added to the tubes and mixed well. The tubes were then left for incubation for 30 min. Absorbance or optical density was read at 660nm. Determination of kd for QNB Eight test tube was taken, four containing low QNB concentration (1.3nM QNB mix) and four tubes containing high QNB concentration (6.5nM QNB mix). Tubes 1 to 4 were added with 7.50 ml, 2.50 ml, 5 ml and 3.2 ml of 6.5 nM QNB mix respectively. Lower concentration of QNB is made by diluting the standard QNB assay mix with NaKP solution. These tubes are labelled 1-8. The solution of tube 1-8, of about 1500 ÃŽÂ ¼l each was added to the triplicate tubes (A1, A2, A3, H1, H2, H3) respectively. Solution of tube 1 is added to tubes A, Tube 2 to B tubes till tube 8 to tubes H. 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l water + 200 ÃŽÂ ¼l membrane was then added to all tubes. For tubes A4-H4, 300 ÃŽÂ ¼l Atropine plus (Tube 1-8) respectively plus 200 ÃŽÂ ¼l membranes was added. Radioactivity was measured in all tube. A lowry assay was also carried out. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Here in the graph the values are plotted for QNB bound with atropine (with as show in the graph), QNB bound without atropine (Without as shown in the graph) and Corrected vales are obtained by subtracting QNB bound with atropine from the QNB bound without atropine (corrected as shown in the graph ) against time. Here QNB bound without atropine is total amount of QNB bound to the receptor; QNB bound with atropine is the Non-specific binding of QNB to the receptor and corrected is the specific binding of QNB to the receptor. After a particular time of incubation receptors reach equilibrium, where no more binding of QNB takes place to the binding sites. At this point when no more binding of QNB takes place the plateau is formed in the graph showing saturation. This incubation time is approximately 45 min as shown by the graph reaching the plateau. The graph shows us that with and corrected points of the graph forms a plateau after reaching incubation time of approximately 45 min. If an addition incubation time was taken after 60 min we would have got a plateau for without graph also showing us a plateau. The graph shows that the cmp value increase over time after which when reaching a particular time no more binding occurs thus forming a plateau showing the saturation or equilibrium has reached. Small decline in the graph can be seen at time 30 to 45 min, this could have been due to experimental errors. The errors could have been caused during pipetting, in proper vacuum, formation of bubbles, adding samples properly between time intervals etc. This can be avoided by more careful handling of the instrument and doing a initial check up for errors so as to not cause changes in the experiments result. Taking the above data into consideration we have chosen 45 min as incubation time for determining IC50 of atropine. This is because, saturation of binding sites is achieved and no further unbinding of QNB also occurs, as the off-rate or reaction constant of QNB unbinding is very low. So there is no further change in the amount of bound QNB and hence this incubation time is considered appropriate. By serial dilution different concentration of atropine was prepared. The graph shows us that the amount to QNB bound to the receptor of the membrane reduces with increase in concentration. This happens because atropine is a competitive binder and binds competitively with specific sites to the receptor. The amount of QNB specifically bound will be inversely proportional with atropine concentration. Half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50)  is a measure of how effective a compound is in inhibiting biological or biochemical function. This is a quantitative measure that let us know how much concentration of the drug or biological substance (inhibitor) is required to inhibit a given biological process by half. So we are calculating the IC50 of atropine to determine its potency. It is calculated by taking atropine concentration at which 50% QNB is displaced. The IC 50 value was found to be 0.0008912 ÃŽÂ ¼M. This shows that atropine is a drug with good potency. Ic 50 does not directly discuss the binding constant so we cannot compare the binding affinity of QNB and receptor. Lowarys assay Lowrys assay was carried out for determining the concentration of membrane protein. First different concentration of BSA was used and we generated a graph for it, taking concentration and OD. The membrane protein was then checked for absorbance and was found to be 0.322. Using the linear regression equation and the absorbance, concentration of the membrane protein was found to be 0.803 mg/ml. This test was done for another membrane protein sample. The absorbance of the membrane was 0.27. Again using the regression equation and the absorbance, concentration of the membrane protein was found to be 0.293529412 mg/ml. Determination of Kd: Kd is -1/m and was the equation was used is y = -8499.6x 1.3669. the kd is used to define the affinity between the drug and the protein . the value of Bmax was 0.001161 nm.

American Geopolitical Interest Essay -- Politics International United

A Game of Strategy Mark Twain once defined the term, sphere of influence to be, â€Å"A courteous modern phrase which means robbing your neighbor—for your neighbor's benefit.† Like Twain, many claim that economic interests have caused America to rob its Southern neighbors and act in a self-seeking manner. Others claim that the ideological conviction that America altruistically acts according to its neighbor’s benefit has strongly influenced America’s international behavior. However, America, possessing a huge GDP at its disposal, a strong government, and a patriotic society realized that these assets alone could not guarantee the nation’s survival. It must be able to ensure national security as well as protect its interests abroad. Although it is true that ideology, economic welfare, as well as domestic politics all have played a significant role in U.S. foreign policy, the fundamental factor that has governed American foreign policy has been geopolitical objectives. The Monroe Doctrine, contrived by President Monroe in 1823, is a lucid example of America’s pursuit of geopolitical interests in the Pan-American region. The Doctrine was an audacious declaration to the powerful European nations to abstain from the region. It followed the spirit of â€Å"Manifest Destiny†, the rousing conviction that Americans had the right to seize the territory surrounding them. According to Coerver and Hall, the essential principle that this Doctrine was based upon was the â€Å"conviction that the United States was destined to expand†(13). The authors proceed to remark of the State Department’s concern that Spain’s loss of its empire may yield to other European powers taking over various areas of Latin America, especially the prospect of Br... ...icy in the region. Through the analysis of the Monroe Doctrine, the Roosevelt Corollary, the importance of the Panama Canal, and a host of other examples, one can perceive the great importance America imposes on its national security interests. Even to this day, geopolitical concerns dominate American foreign policy. This time, however, Latin America goes unobserved as the United States proceeds to pursue its new strategic interests in the Middle East. Works Cited 1. Coerver, David and Linda Hall. T a ngled Destinies . Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1999. 2. LaRosa, Michael and Frank O. Mora eds. N e ighborly Adversaries: Readings in U.S. - Latin American Relations . Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 1999. 3. Brockett, Charles. â€Å"An Illusion of Omnipotence: U.S. Policy Toward Guatemala 1954- 1960.† Latin American Politics and Society, 2002.

Quest for Self and Identity in Jack Kerouac’s On The Road Essay

The Quest For Identity In On The Road  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Jack Kerouac’s ‘On The Road’, the protagonists embark upon a long, arduous quest for human identity. Their aim is to uncover who they truly are, where they fit in the ‘scheme of things’ and what the meaning of life is. They articulate this desire by speaking, during the novel, of the search for ‘IT’, ‘IT’ being human identity. This ‘IT’ is an intangible thing; something that holds a different meaning for every individual. It encompasses all the things humans yearn for – life answers, the meaning of the universe, happiness, enlightenment, self-fulfilment, ‘beatification’ (as articulated by Kerouac). ‘On the Road’ is the story of a desperate search for ‘IT’, in which the protagonists finally come to realise that ‘IT’ is unattainable and time cannot be defied. The human search for ‘IT’ is never-ending.   Even when we know that the search is virtually impossible, that ‘IT’ is unreachable, that ou... ...iences and thoughts. The novel concludes with the poignant truth humans often try to ignore – that time and aging are inexorable and that the answers to life will most probably never be known to any of us while on earth. Works Cited: Kerouac, Jack. On The Road. Penguin Books Limited, New York. 1955. Honan, Simon. The Beat Generation,   Allen and Unwin Publishing, New York. 1987. Eliot, T.S. The Collected Works of TS Eliot, Eldridge Publishing Inc, Sydney.1954.

Isolation of Bacteria

Different types of bacteria in various forms are found all around us, and it is a microbiologist’s job to be able to identify these bacteria. Using various staining techniques and physiological tests, an isolated bacterium can be identified. In this experiment, a single bacterial colony was isolated form Mycorrhizal spores, and further tests done on that colony. Sub culturing was done after each week to ensure that the bacterium has sufficient nutrients required for optimum growth that will last the duration of the entire experiment. A flow chart was created based on the results of the physiological tests in order to identify the isolated bacterium. After 4 weeks, the isolated bacterium was identified as XXXXX for reasons stated in the results and discussion. The main goal of this experiment was to identify the isolated bacterium that was obtained from Mycorrhizal spores. In order to identify the bacterium, the experiment was conducted in 4 parts: (a) isolation of an unknown bacterium from soil; (b) identification of the bacterium using various staining techniques; (c) determining the motility of the bacterium; and (d) determining the physiological characteristics of the bacterium. Part (a) of the experiment involves isolating a single bacterial colony from the culture. The remaining 3 parts will be conducted on that colony. In part (b), it is shown that various staining techniques test for different characteristics. As the name suggests, a gram stain is conducted to identify the bacteria as gram negative or gram positive. Two other stains were carried out. To determine the motility of the bacterium, wet mounts of the bacterium were observed and the motility was confirmed by using soft agar plates and soft agar deeps for part (c). The physiological characteristics were identified in part (d). Some of these tests include growth temperatures and salt tolerance, degradation of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids, oxygen requirements etc. Based on the results for the above, the unknown bacterium can be identified by comparing it to cultures in the Bergey’s manual. A flow chart can be drawn up to correctly identify the bacterium by using the physiological test results.

Kristallnacht – source related study

Any Historian studying Kristallnacht would find sources A and B very useful as they both say who is responsible for the night. Although the person who is said to be responsible in each source is different, they both show that the Nazis were clearly against the Jews and this would give the Historian a good idea of which source is more likely to be accurate. Source A's provenance tells us it is a summary by Fritz Hesse who was a journalist working for Hitler, this means he would know quite a bit about him so his source is likely to have some truth in it. The source was also written in 1954 which is many years after Hitler died so he would not be bothered about writing the truth because nothing would happen. If Hitler was still alive he would have been scared to write the truth and Hitler would have probably told him what he had to write, on the other hand, it was along time ago and the details may not be fresh in his mind so there could be some inaccurate detail in it. The source tells us that Fritz Hesse (the writer of the source) was at dinner with Hitler, Goebbels and some other party leaders and overhears an officer whispering something into Goebbels ear. He then sees Goebbles mumble to Hitler about a mass attack on the Jews and synagogues that he and the SA had planned for that night. Hitler is very excited about this and Goebbles is pleased because he is trying to get back in with Hitler. The detail in this source which makes it seem reliable is when Hitler is very excited about hearing what Goebbels has planned against the Jews, Hesse remembers that he, ‘squealed with delight and slapped his thigh with enthusiasm,' this makes the source seem more convincing and therefore more useful to the Historian as it is not something you normally make up. At the end of the source it says that Goebbels was clearly trying to win back Hitler's support, this also makes it seem reliable because we know that he was out of favour with Hitler because he had an affair with a Czech actress. This source would be useful because it tells the historian that the SA and Goebbels were responsible for the attacks and that the Nazis were against the Jews a lot. Source B is not very reliable, but it is still very useful to the Historian. It is a secret report prepared by the Nazi party supreme court after the events of Kristallnacht so it is the official Nazi line, this means the story might have been change completely to make the Nazis look good and not responsible because they knew the German people would not approve. The source says that the report is from after the attacks, but they are announced to everyone by Goebbels in the evening which does not really fit in. The source is blaming the German people for the anti-Jewish demonstrations and Goebbels told the party leaders about this at a social evening. The source also says that if people do start ‘spur of the moment' attacks on the Jews it will not be stopped. The source sounds more reliable when Goebbels tells the party leaders that there has been some anti-Jewish demonstrations, because this makes it seem although they did not know anything about its. The description of the things that happened on the night would have been reliable because if they were blaming other people and not themselves it would not matter to them. This source would be useful to the Historian because it says what happened on Kristallnacht and the kind of damage that was done, it also lets the historian know that the Nazis claimed not to be responsible which means that if they were they obviously did it so they would not loose support from German people. The similarities between the two sources are that both have an evening gathering of the party leaders on the 9th of November, but source A is from before the demonstrations and source B is from after, but the attacks happened at night so this makes source B seem inaccurate. Both of the sources show that the Nazis do not like the Jews because in source A when Hitler is told about Goebbels plan he is very excited and in Source B after Goebbels denies having anything to do with the attacks he says that the Nazis would not be allowed to organise such demonstrations but they would not be stopped. These similarities would be very useful to the historian because he would have something that he knows is most likely true, like the Nazis disliking the Jews a lot which would help him decide what he thinks is more accurate. The source that would be more reliable is source A, but source B would be more useful to the Historian because it is more detailed as it says what happened on the night which would be reliable because the Nazis were not blamed so it wouldn't matter to them what was written because it didn't make them look bad, it also lets the Historian know that the Jews were not liked by the Nazis because of the one line at the end of the source so the historian could judge who was to blame for himself. Source A only tells the historian who is to blame and does not really give a description of the kind of things that were done on the night.